Rajasthan, India’s largest state by area, is known for its diverse and rich industrial landscape. The state’s economy is bolstered by key industries ranging from traditional sectors including textiles and mining to emerging fields such as IT and renewable energy. As one of the leading mineral-producing states in India (Charan et al., 2020), Rajasthan is rich in (1) high-quality marble, especially the white marble from Makrana, used in the Taj Mahal; (2) limestone from Kota, Jaisalmer and Nagaur, crucial for cement manufacturing in which Rajasthan is a leading producer in India; (3) granite, found in Udaipur, Jalore, and Ajmer; (4) sandstone, popular for its use in construction and sculptures, especially from Jodhpur and Bundi; and (5) gypsum, used in cement and fertilizer industries, primarily found in Bikaner.

The mining sector in Rajasthan is estimated to employ around 2.5 million people that are engaged in various activities including the mining, processing and loading of stones (Singhal & Goel, 2022). These workers are estimated to annually produce over 3 million tonnes of marble which accounts for approximately 90% of India’s marble production, 2.5 million tonnes of sandstone accounting for 10% of national sandstone, and over 25 million tonnes of limestone and 1.2 million tonnes of granite production that make a significant proportion of national production. Cobblestone production and utilisation in Rajasthan are significant parts of the state’s stone industry, with approximately 2 million metric tons of cobblestones produced annually. Cobblestone production comprises sandstone (55%), granite (30%), limestone (10%), and slate (5%).

India is one of the top three global exporters of natural stones in tonnage terms, ranking behind Italy and China, with stones being the second largest foreign exchange earning mineral type after iron ore (Charan et al., 2020). Major export markets include the UK, Australia, Belgium, Italy, Canada, Germany, USA, France, and UAE. Rajasthan’s stone industry exports are worth over $1 billion annually, contributing significantly to India’s total stone exports (for example, marble accounts for 40%, granite for 15% and sandstone for 20% of India’s exports). A substantial portion of the stone production is consumed domestically, particularly in construction and infrastructure projects in such areas as flooring, cladding, monuments, and architectural elements. For example, Rajasthan’s cobblestones can be found in Delhi’s Connaught Place and Jaipur’s old city pathways; Lodi Gardens in Delhi and urban parks in Mumbai; Amer Fort in Jaipur and Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur; IT parks in Hyderabad and Pune, and luxury hotels in Goa (Kaur et al., 2020). But significant exports means that cobblestones from Rajasthan also have been used in pavers and other types of infrastructure globally.

Rajasthan’s natural stone is a dominant subsector of the state’s ASM sector which generated revenues of USD 1.31 billion in 2017-18, with export revenues almost quadrupling over two decades (ILO, 2021b). With a growing demand for cobblestones due to urbanization and landscaping trends and Rajasthan’s quality stones, there is clearly a huge potential for the stone sector to drive economic transformation in the state. However, there are pressing issues at the source of mine sites that need immediate attention for that potential to translate to fruition. In addition to the environmental impact through land degradation of open pits covering significant areas, poor working conditions and health and safety risks blight the sector. In contrast to the increases for Italy and China and slight decreases for Brazil and Turkey, the prices of natural stone from India have decreased by 30% over the last decade or so which is partly attributed to the international buyers’ concerns about the conditions for responsible sourcing of these materials (ILO, 2021a, 2021b).

Labor Issues

Workers often face harsh conditions, with inadequate safety measures, lack of proper equipment, and exposure to extreme temperatures and hazardous materials. Child labour and exploitation remain significant concerns, with many children working in unsafe conditions to help support their families. For example, Marshall et al. (2016) estimate more than 375,000 children, mostly girls, labouring in cobblestone quarries in the state.

Many workers are paid wages on a piece-rate basis below the minimum standards without access to benefits such as healthcare, insurance, or job security. Informal employment arrangements and the lack of any evidence of employment deny workers legal protections and benefits. Many quarry workers are housed in barracks near the mine sites which are provided by the mine owners who also issue miners some money or downpayment as an informal loan when injured or sick. These end up becoming control mechanisms indebting workers and thus preventing them from raising any concerns or exercising any rights to address the exploitative labour conditions. This is made worse by the complex supply chain that makes tracing the stones hard.

Health Risks

By far the major issue in the mines is the widespread cases of silicosis – a chronic disease caused by prolonged exposure to silica dust as stone quarry workers dry-drill and chisel stones mostly by hand without any basic health and safety equipment. Estimates indicate that around 56% of mine workers in Rajasthan (roughly 800,000) could be affected by silicosis (Marshall et al., 2016). In addition, the manual handling of heavy stones and operating machinery without proper training and protective equipment leads to frequent injuries and accidents.

These health and labour issues are symptoms of the unauthorized quarrying and non-compliance with mining regulations, which also lead to loss of government revenue. Weak enforcement of mining regulations and labour laws allows for continued exploitation of workers and environmental damage.

Action for meaningful impact

To address these issues, several measures can be implemented such as using water spraying and dust suppression systems to minimize air pollution from quarrying activities. There is a dire need for provision and practical application of proper safety gear, training for workers, and enforcement of safety protocols to reduce accidents. This requires the government to enforce the Rajasthan Shops and Establishments Act and the Mines Act, focusing on safety and labour standards in quarries. But mine owners and the industry in general have a crucial role by providing workers with necessary protective equipment, such as gloves, masks, and helmets. Exporters and manufacturers in Rajasthan adhering to fair trade principles for international markets could ensure ethical sourcing and fair treatment of workers.

For most of the workers, the stone sector is the main source of livelihood and so there is a need for wage reform programs to ensure fair wages, health benefits, and job security. Regular inspections by the Rajasthan Labor Department are needed to monitor wage payments and ensure compliance with minimum wage laws. Legal aid programs such as by Human Rights Law Network (HRLN) in Udaipur can help advocate for workers’ rights in the mining sector. Microfinance and financial literacy should also be promoted to enable workers escape debt bondage and improve their economic stability.

Several silicosis patients that we interviewed expressed the challenges to accessing regular health check-ups, provision of medical care, and monitoring for occupational diseases among workers. While healthcare and health insurance can be facilitated through government and community health initiatives, there is a pressing need for educating workers about the risks of silicosis and other diseases and promoting the use of protective equipment. The National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH) should rump up its health camps and awareness programs about silicosis in Jodhpur. But a critical role can be played by local organisations such as the Mining Labour Protection Centre (MLPC) which undertakes grounded activities constantly engaging and supporting mine workers. These organisations can provide training of workers on safety practices and the proper use of equipment. MLPC is currently designing a strategy to set up mobile vocational training centers that will be operationalised in collaboration with mine owners. These self-contained units would travel to mining sites, eliminating the need for workers to travel long distances. There is, however, a need for support from development agencies to help such a grounded solution get off the ground and have meaningful impact.